Transformation of glycerol and cellulosic materials into high energy fuels

ABSTRACT

The present invention includes a system and method for making a biofuel comprising: providing a nitrogen-limiting, minimal growth media comprising glycerol, sugars generated from cellulosic biomass or both, under conditions in which an oleaginous microbe converts the growth media into at least one of triacylglycerol, neutral lipids, fatty acids, long-chain fatty acids, and hydrocarbons that is secreted by the microbe.

TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates in general to the field of biofuels, andmore particularly, to the conversion of short chain carbohydrates frombiofuel formation and cellulosic biomass into high energy fuels.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Without limiting the scope of the invention, its background is describedin connection with biofuel formation.

A number of investigators have been developing alternative fuels topartially or completely replace fossil fuels. As proven reserves offossil fuel reservoirs decrease, a great need has arisen for thedevelopment of fuels based on renewable sources.

One such renewable source of energy is taught in U.S. Pat. No.7,371,558, issued to Cervin, et al. for a process on the biologicalproduction of 1,3-propanediol with high yield. Briefly, a microorganismuseful for biologically producing 1,3-propanediol from a fermentablecarbon source at higher yield is taught. Cofactor complexity requiredthe use of whole cell catalyst for an industrial process to produce1,3-propanediol. A microorganism is included with disruptions inspecified genes and alterations in the expression levels of specifiedgenes that is useful in a higher yielding process to produce1,3-propanediol.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,285,403, issued to Jeffries, et al., teaches axylose-fermenting recombinant yeast strain. Briefly, xylose-fermentingrecombinant yeast strains are taught that express xylose reductase,xylitol dehydrogenase, and xylulokinase and have reduced expression ofPHO13 or a PHO13 ortholog, as well as methods of fermenting xylose toobtain ethanol using the recombinant yeast strains. One specificembodiment of the invention is a recombinant xylose-fermenting strain ofSaccharomyces cerevisiae expressing Pichiastipis XYL123 and having atransposon or disruption mutation in PHO13.

Another such renewable source is taught in U.S. Pat. No. 5,697,986,issued to Haas, for fuels as solvents for the conduct of enzymaticreactions. Briefly, this patent describes a method of producing biofuelsby carrying out the enzymatic transesterification of fattyacid-containing materials directly in automotive fuels. The methodincludes forming a reaction mixture of automotive or related fuel, fattyacid-containing substances, alcohol and lipase, all in amounts effectivefor a reaction to occur, and water in an amount sufficient to conferenzymatic activity, incubating the reaction mixture for a time and at atemperature sufficient for transesterification between the fattyacid-containing substance and the alcohol to occur, and separating theby-products from the biofuel portion of the mixture.

Yet another method is taught in United States Patent Application No.20080092829, filed by Renninger, et al., for fuel components, fuelcompositions and methods of making and using same that includes a fuelcomposition with at least a C₅ isoprenoid compound or its derivative anda conventional fuel additive. The C₅ isoprenoid compound or itsderivative can be used as a fuel component or as a fuel additive in thefuel composition. The fuel composition may further be a conventionalfuel component selected from a diesel fuel, jet fuel, kerosene orgasoline. Methods of making and using the fuel composition are alsodisclosed.

Another method is taught in United States Patent Application No.20080071125, filed by Li for a method of converting triglycerides tobiofuels. Briefly, the application discloses a triglyceride-to-fuelconversion process that includes the steps of (a) pre-conditioningunsaturated triglycerides by catalytic conjugation, cyclization, andcross-link steps; (b) contacting the modified triglycerides withhot-compressed water containing a catalyst, wherein cracking,hydrolysis, decarboxylation, dehydration, aromatization, orisomerization, or any combination thereof, of the modified triglyceridesproduce a crude hydrocarbon oil and an aqueous phase containing glyceroland lower molecular weight molecules, and (c) refining the crudehydrocarbon oil to produce various grades of biofuels. The biofuelcomposition may include straight-chain, branched and cycloparaffins, andaromatics. The paraffins are derived from conversion of triglyceridesand the aromatics are derived from conversion of either triglycerides,petroleum, or coal.

United States Patent Application No. 20060236595, filed by Nakamurateaches a biofuel conversion process. Briefly, a process, method,apparatus and materials for efficient conversion of waste vegetable oilsinto biofuel that does not use methanol as a reactant or catalyst isdisclosed. The biofuel is mixed with kerosene or heavy oil to form astable diesel fuel grade fuel that is mixable with diesel fuel. Inaddition, the process and apparatus are also applicable to theconversion of virgin vegetable oils and other waste or virgin oils, suchas used motor oil, into fuels or fuel additives.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention includes systems and methods for the conversion ofshort-chain carbohydrates from biofuel formation and cellulosic biomassinto high-energy fuels.

In one embodiment, the present invention includes compositions, cellsand methods of making a biofuel comprising: providing anitrogen-limiting, minimal growth media comprising glycerol, sugarsgenerated from cellulosic biomass or both, under conditions in which anoleaginous microbe converts the growth media into at least one oftriacylglycerol, neutral lipids, fatty acids, long-chain fatty acids,and hydrocarbons that is secreted by the microbe. In one aspect, themedia comprise 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, or 2.0 M salt. In another aspect, themedia comprise at least one of a cellulose, a cellulosic substrate,cellobiose, carboxymethylcellulose, hemicellulose, a sweet sorghumextract, a sugar cane extract, a sugar cane baggasse, or cellulosicsubstrates derived therefrom. In another aspect, the neutral lipid is atleast one of a triacylglycerol (TAG) comprising saturated esterifiedfatty acids; a TAG comprising unsaturated esterified fatty acids; a TAGcomprising oleic acid; or a TAG comprising oleic acid at the Sn-1, Sn-2or Sn-3 position. In another aspect, the hydrocarbons comprise C16, C18,C20, C22, C24, C26, C28, C30, and/or C40 and the hydrocarbons arefurther processed into a lubricant, biodiesel, gasoline, jet fuel, or aliquid transportation fuel. In another aspect, the hydrocarbons containC15, C17, C19, C21, C23, C25, C27, C29, and/or C31.

In yet another aspect, the mixture of hydrocarbons is optimized for aspecific application, selected from a precursor for liquidtransportation fuel biosynthesis, a precursor for lubricant biosynthesisor derivatives thereof. In another aspect, the microbes are grown for48, 72, 96, or 120 hours at a temperature of 25° C., 30° C., or 37° C.and at a pH of 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0 or 7.5. In another aspect, themedia comprise 0.01% nitrogen. In another aspect, the microbes secretethe triacylglycerol, neutral lipids, fatty acids, long-chain fattyacids, and hydrocarbons without cell death. In another aspect, themicrobes are induced to overexpress one or more autophagy-associatedgenes. In another aspect, the microbes are induced to overexpress one ormore autophagy-associated genes selected from ATG1, ATG2, ATG3, ATG4,ATG5, ATG6, ATG7, ATG8, ATG9, ATG10, ATG11, ATG12, ATG13, ATG14, ATG15,ATG16, ATG17, ATG18, ATG19, ATG20, ATG21, ATG22, ATG23, ATG24, ATG25,ATG26, ATG27, ATG28, ATG29, ATG30, ATG31. In another aspect, themicrobes are genetically modified to overexpress one or moreautophagy-associated S. cerevisiae genes selected from ATG1, ATG2, ATG3,ATG4, ATG5, ATG6, ATG7, ATG8, ATG9, ATG10, ATG11, ATG12, ATG13, ATG14,ATG15, ATG16, ATG17, ATG18, ATG19, ATG20, ATG21, ATG22, ATG23, ATG24,ATG25, ATG26, ATG27, ATG28, ATG29, ATG30, ATG31. In another aspect, themicrobes are genetically modified to overexpress one or moreautophagy-associated genes that is orthologous or paralogous to a geneselected from ATG1, ATG2, ATG3, ATG4, ATG5, ATG6, ATG7, ATG8, ATG9,ATG10, ATG11, ATG12, ATG13, ATG14, ATG15, ATG16, ATG17, ATG18, ATG19,ATG20, ATG21, ATG22, ATG23, ATG24, ATG25, ATG26, ATG27, ATG28, ATG29,ATG30, ATG31. In yet another aspect, the microbes are geneticallymodified to overexpress one or more autophagy-associated genesintegrated into the genome or on an autonomously replicating plasmid. Inanother aspect, the microbes are selected from Debaryomyces sp.,Saccharomyces sp., Rhodococcus sp., Nocardia sp., Mycobacterium sp.,Rhodosporidium sp., Cryptococcus sp., Rhodotorula sp., Yarrowialipolytica and/or Lipomyces sp. In another aspect, combinations of thesemicrobes are used in a single reaction vessel.

Another embodiment of the present invention includes a method ofproducing a biofuel comprising: growing an oleaginous microbe in anitrogen-limiting, minimal media to late log phase and/or stationaryphase, whereby the oleaginous microbe secretes an oil. In one aspect,the media comprise 0.01% nitrogen. In another aspect, the microbes aregrown for 48, 72, 96, or 120 hours at a temperature of 25° C., 30° C.,or 37° C. and at a pH of 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0 or 7.5. In anotheraspect, the media comprise 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, or 2.0 M salt, e.g., at leastone of NaCl, KCl, or both KCl and NaCl. In another aspect, the microbesare treated with an agent that increases PI-3 kinase activity. Inanother aspect, the microbes have been genetically modified tooverexpress PI-3 kinase. In another aspect, the microbes have beengenetically modified to comprise a PI-3 kinase overexpression cassetteinto the cell, wherein the PI-3 kinase overexpression cassette isintegrated into the genome or the PI-3 kinase is in an overexpressioncassette on an autonomously replicating plasmid.

Yet another embodiment of the present invention includes an oleaginousmicrobe comprising that has been engineered to secrete enhanced amountsof oil by upregulating PI-3 kinase activity. In one aspect, the microbeshave been genetically modified to overexpress PI-3 kinase. In oneaspect, the microbes have been genetically modified to comprise a PI-3kinase overexpression cassette into the cell, wherein the PI3-kinaseoverexpression cassette is integrated into the genome or the PI-3 kinaseis in an overexpression cassette on an autonomously replicating plasmid.In another aspect, the microbes are selected from wherein the organismused for biofuel formation are selected from Debaryomyces sp.,Saccharomyces sp., Rhodococcus sp., Nocardia sp., Mycobacterium sp.,Rhodosporidium sp., Cryptococcus sp., Rhodotorula sp., Yarrowialipolytica and/or Lipomyces sp.

Yet another embodiment of the present invention includes an oleaginousmicrobe comprising that has been engineered to secrete enhanced amountsof oil by modulating the expression of autophagy-associated genes. Inone aspect, the microbes are induced to modify the expression of one ormore autophagy-associated S. cerevisiae genes selected from ATG1, ATG2,ATG3, ATG4, ATG5, ATG6, ATG7, ATG8, ATG9, ATG10, ATG11, ATG12, ATG13,ATG14, ATG15, ATG16, ATG17, ATG18, ATG19, ATG20, ATG21, ATG22, ATG23,ATG24, ATG25, ATG26, ATG27, ATG28, ATG29, ATG30, ATG31. In anotheraspect, the microbes are induced to modify the expression of one or moreautophagy-associated genes that are orthologous or paralogous to the S.cerevisiae genes selected from ATG1, ATG2, ATG3, ATG4, ATG5, ATG6, ATG7,ATG8, ATG9, ATG10, ATG11, ATG12, ATG13, ATG14, ATG15, ATG16, ATG17,ATG18, ATG19, ATG20, ATG21, ATG22, ATG23, ATG24, ATG25, ATG26, ATG27,ATG28, ATG29, ATG30, ATG31. In another aspect, the microbes aregenetically modified to vary the expression of one or moreautophagy-associated genes selected from ATG1, ATG2, ATG3, ATG4, ATG5,ATG6, ATG7, ATG8, ATG9, ATG10, ATG11, ATG12, ATG13, ATG14, ATG15, ATG16,ATG17, ATG18, ATG19, ATG20, ATG21, ATG22, ATG23, ATG24, ATG25, ATG26,ATG27, ATG28, ATG29, ATG30, ATG31. In another aspect, the microbes aregenetically modified to vary the expression of one or moreautophagy-associated genes by integrating the genes into the genome, byexpression of the genes on an autonomously replicating plasmid or bymodifying the expression of the genes post-translationally. In anotheraspect, the microbes are engineered to under-express theautophagy-associated genes to decrease oil secretion. In another aspect,the microbes are engineered to overexpress the autophagy-associatedgenes to increase oil secretion. In another aspect, the microbes arefurther genetically modified to overexpress PI-3 kinase.

Yet another embodiment of the present invention is a method of reducingbioreactor waste comprising: mixing a reaction waste product comprisingglycerol with a growth media and an inoculum of Debaryomyces hanseniiunder conditions in which D. hansenii converts the glycerol intolong-chain fatty acids and hydrocarbons; and recovering the long-chainfatty acids and hydrocarbons produced thereby. Yet another embodiment ofthe present invention is a method of reducing bioreactor wastecomprising: generating a biofuel by fermentation; collecting a glycerolwaste stream from the fermentation; mixing a biofuel reactor wasteproduct comprising glycerol with a growth media and an inoculum of D.hansenii under conditions in which D. hansenii converts the glycerolinto long-chain fatty acids and hydrocarbons; and recovering thelong-chain fatty acids and hydrocarbons produced thereby.

Yet another embodiment of the present invention is a biofuel reactorcomprising: a vessel comprising an internal volume capable of holding agrowth medium; a microbe capable of converting glycerol into along-chain fatty acids and hydrocarbons in the growth medium; and asource of glycerol.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a more complete understanding of the features and advantages of thepresent invention, reference is now made to the detailed description ofthe invention along with the accompanying figures and in which:

FIG. 1. Growth of D. hansenii on sugarcane juice;

FIG. 2. Plates with the growth of D. hansenii using sugarcane bagasseextracts as carbon source;

FIG. 3. Growth of D. hansenii in liquid media with variousconcentrations of glucose;

FIG. 4. Growth and oleagenicity of D. hansenii on glucose and glycerolcontaining media;

FIG. 5. Time course of lipid accumulation in D. hansenii;

FIG. 6. Micrographs that show the cellular lipid accumulation in D.hansenii;

FIG. 7. growth of D. hansenii in three different liquid culture media;

FIG. 8. Lipid accumulation in D. hansenii on media containing salt attwo different temperatures;

FIG. 9. Growth of D. hansenii on crude glycerol;

FIG. 10. Inhibition of microbial contamination with salt in growingcultures of D. hansenii;

FIG. 11. Inhibition of microbial contamination with salt in growingcultures of D. hansenii;

FIG. 12. Salt-tolerance of D. hansenii;

FIG. 13. Growth of D. hansenii on pure carbon sources;

FIG. 14. Growth of D. hansenii in liquid media containing Avicel(microcrystalline cellulose) and cellulase—treated Avicel;

FIG. 15. Growth of D. hansenii using cellulase—treated sugarcane bagasseas carbon source

FIG. 16. D. hansenii hygromycin sensitivity test.

FIG. 17. Electron micrographs of D. hansenii cells derived fromwortmannin-treated, 48 hr liquid cultures. Lipid bodies (large whiteinclusions) are physically separated from vacuolar and nuclearcompartments.

FIG. 18. Electron micrographs of D. hansenii cells derived fromuntreated 48 hr liquid cultures. Lipid bodies (large white inclusions)are physically separated from vacuolar and nuclear compartments.

FIG. 19. Electron micrographs of D. hansenii cells derived fromwortmannin-treated 120 hr liquid cultures. Lipid bodies (large whiteinclusions) are physically separated from vacuolar and nuclearcompartments. Alterations in intracellular membrane morphology (comparedto control) are also observed.

FIG. 20. Electron micrographs of D. hansenii cells derived fromuntreated 120 hr liquid cultures. Lipid bodies (large white inclusions)are physically separated from vacuolar and nuclear compartments. Inaddition, the data demonstrate an increase in intracellular lipid overtime in this medium (glucose containing minimal medium).

FIG. 21. Electron micrographs of D. hansenii cells derived fromwortmannin-treated 192 hr liquid cultures. Lipid bodies (large whiteinclusions) are physically separated from vacuolar and nuclearcompartments. Alterations in intracellular membrane morphology (comparedto control) are also observed.

FIG. 22. Electron micrographs of D. hansenii cells derived fromuntreated 192 hr liquid cultures. Lipid bodies (very large whiteinclusions) remain physically separated from vacuolar and nuclearcompartments. In addition, the data demonstrate an increase inintracellular lipid over time in this medium (glucose containing minimalmedium).

FIG. 23. Extracellular vesicles from cultures of D. hansenii werestained with Nile red and observed under the fluorescent microscope.Insets: release of hydrophobic materials attached to the glass wall fromculture of D. hansenii in medium A containing 30 g/L of glucose and 0.1g/L NH₄C1.

FIG. 24. Growth of D. hansenii in the absence and presence of PI-3kinase inhibitors LY 294002 and wortmannin.

FIG. 25. Secretion of lipid by D. hansenii. Treatment of 100 nMwortmannin reduced the number of extracellular lipid bodies (A) whilethe percentage of viable cells (B) was not affected. Cell viability wasdetermined by FUN1 stain and microscopic observation andquantifications. The data demonstrate the secretion of lipid bodies bythe yeast.

FIG. 26. Time course of lipid secretion by D. hansenii demonstrates thatlipid secretion requires PI-3 kinase activity. Treatment of 100 nMwortmannin reduced the number of extracellular lipid bodies over a timecourse of treatment. However, cell viability was not affected. Cellviability was determined by FUN1 stain and microscopic observation andquantification. The data demonstrate the secretion of lipid bodies bythe yeast. A. 0 hr, B. 48 hr, C. 96 hr, D. 120 hr, E. 144 hr.

FIG. 27. Formation of the lipid film on the tube wall of D. hanseniiculture. Day-1 culture. Right tube holds the blank culture (medium Aonly).

FIG. 28. Lipid composition of secreted TAGs is different from bulkcellular lipid. HPTLC profiles of lipid from secreted and non-secretedfractions demonstrate differential species present in each fraction. Sixparallel cultures were processed. D. hansenii cultures were grown tohigh density (OD600>>1.5). The cultures were then diluted in lownitrogen medium N (OD600 0.05) and grown for 5-7 days. Next, cellpellets and supernatant were removed by pipetting out, a film layer onthe tube walls remained. The tube walls were washed with fresh medium A3-5 times. The pellet was separated from supernatant by centrifugation.Each fraction (pellet, supernatant, and film on the tube walls) wasextracted for lipids as described in the figures. The same fractionswere extracted for proteins from similarly grown cultures. Protein bandswere observed in tube wall films and in the pellet but not in thesupernatant. These data therefore indicated a specific (i.e., non-lytic)process for lipid secretion.

FIG. 29. An enzymatic assay to measure extracellular TAG speciesprovides linear information over 2 logs of TAG concentrations. Theenzymatic reactions convert extracellular TAGs into glycerol and thendihydroxyacetone phosphate, accompanied by the formation of hydrogenperoxide. Color reaction based on the degradation of hydrogen peroxideenables measurement with a spectrophotometer.

FIG. 30. An enzymatic TAG assay reveals that D. hansenii secretes TAGinto the extracellular medium over a time course of growth in variouscarbon sources. The amount of TAG synthesized as a function of totalcell weight (biomass) was determined (upper left). The amount ofintracellular lipid, total lipid, and extracellular TAG was alsomeasured (upper right, lower left, lower right, respectively).

FIG. 31. S. cerevisiae cells were grown in synthetic medium (YSC),loaded with oleic acid (OA), switched to low nitrogen (LN) medium, andthen washed with PBS. Extracellular TAG was quantified at different timepoints after the wash. No glycerol was detected in the extracellularlipid extract before the addition of lipase. These data indicate thatoil secretion is evolutionarily conserved, and can be induced innon-oleaginous, genetically-tractable organisms. Importantly, because S.cerevisiae is a model for a wide variety of plant and animal secretion,these data indicate that oil secretion can be induced in both plants andanimal cells.

FIG. 32. Phenotype Microarray (PM) strategy. Phenotype microarrays wereused to define conditions under which D. hansenii optimally secretedoil. The strategy for PM analysis is depicted.

FIGS. 33 and 34. Growth of D. hansenii in the presence of various carbonsources (as measured using the OMNILOG PM).

FIG. 35. PM1_(—)1 after 5 days of incubation at 30° C.

FIG. 36. PM2_(—)2, after 6.5 days of incubation at 30° C.

FIG. 37. Time course of D. hansenii growth in the presence of variouscarbon sources (as measured using the OMNILOG PM).

FIG. 38. Growth of D. hansenii in glycerol alone or with NaCl (asmeasured using the OMNILOG PM).

FIG. 39. Growth of D. hansenii in assorted osmolytes (as measured usingthe OMNILOG PM).

FIG. 40. Growth of D. hansenii in osmolytes, cont'd. (as measured usingthe OMNILOG PM).

FIG. 41. Growth of D. hansenii in potassium chloride (as measured usingthe OMNILOG PM).

FIG. 42. Growth of D. hansenii at various pH values (as measured usingthe OMNILOG PM).

FIGS. 43 and 44. Growth of D. hansenii in acid and base (as measuredusing the OMNILOG PM).

FIG. 45. Growth of D. hansenii at various pH values (as measured usingthe OMNILOG PM).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

While the making and using of various embodiments of the presentinvention are discussed in detail below, it should be appreciated thatthe present invention provides many applicable inventive concepts thatcan be embodied in a wide variety of specific contexts. The specificembodiments discussed herein are merely illustrative of specific ways tomake and use the invention and do not delimit the scope of theinvention.

To facilitate the understanding of this invention, a number of terms aredefined below. Terms defined herein have meanings as commonly understoodby a person of ordinary skill in the areas relevant to the presentinvention. Terms such as “a”, “an” and “the” are not intended to referto only a singular entity, but include the general class of which aspecific example may be used for illustration. The terminology herein isused to describe specific embodiments of the invention, but their usagedoes not delimit the invention, except as outlined in the claims.

As used herein, the terms “tolerant” and “greater tolerance” refer tothe ability of a cell or organism to survive and grow better in a givenenvironmental condition better than a reference cell or organism.Typically in the present invention, the reference cell or organism is awild type cell or organism, or a cell or organism that is isogenicexcept for a specified genetic difference.

As used herein, the term “salt tolerance” refers to the tolerance of anorganism to elevated levels of dissolved salts, e.g., NaCl and/orosmolytes, e.g., glycerol, but can also include tolerance to elevatedlevels of other dissolved salts, e.g., potassium, calcium, and magnesiumsalts or osmolytes.

As used herein, the term “culturing” refers to a process of growingcells or organisms under conditions that allow increase in size and/ornumber of cells or organisms, or that are intended to test for suchincrease in size and/or number. For example, culture includes growth ofyeast cells in liquid or solid media culture, as well as growth ofplants in soil. Thus, culturing is distinguished from mere storage ofcells or organisms.

As used herein, the term “cell culture” refers to culture of cells asdistinguished from culturing multicellular organisms, such as plants.That is, the cells are present as generally separated cells withoutorganization into natural complex structures such as tissues. Commonly,cell culture is carried out with liquid media, with the cells either ona surface or surfaces and bathed by the media, or suspended in themedia.

As used herein, the phrase “high salt conditions” refers to the presenceof salt and other osmolytes, e.g., sodium chloride (or sodium ion),carbohydrates and glycerol in solution or in position to becomesolubilized at a concentration higher than normal for a particular celltype or organisms of interest, e.g., to eliminate or prevent the growthof unwanted organisms. For example, increasing the salt concentration ofa bioreactor or fermentor waste stream that includes fermenting bacteriaor yeasts can be used to eliminate or prevent the continued growth ofthose organisms, while permitting the halophilic yeast of the presentinvention to convert glycerol and cellulosic materials into long-chainhydrocarbons with little or no interference from other fermentingbacteria or yeast.

As used herein, the phrase “growth conditions” refers to conditions thatallow growth, preferably including increase in numbers, of a referencecell or organism such as Debaryomyces hansenii.

As used herein, the phrase “exponential growth phase” refers to theperiod of growth of cells (e.g., yeasts) in non-replenished mediumduring which active growth occurs. When number of cells is plotted in asemi-log plot versus time, the exponential growth phase is shown as agenerally linear section of the curve, typically between an upwardcurving initial growth period (generally representing a lag phase andinduction of growth) and a later portion of the curve where the slopedecreases as growth in the number of cells substantially slows andusually essentially stops (stationary phase).

As used herein, the phrases “stationary growth phase” or “stationaryphase” refer to the period in growth of cells in non-replenished mediumduring which the increase in the number of cells substantially slows andtypically stops. Cells can also be maintained in exponential growthphase in continuous culture, e.g., by replenishment of media and removalof cells.

As used herein, the phrase “increased yield” refers to a culture thatproduces a greater amount of the product than a reference culture, or agreater amount in a specified time period. The increase may, forexample, be due to the presence of a greater density (number) of cellsin a particular volume of culture.

As used herein, the term “fermentation” refers to a metabolic process(and the associated culture process) that is not principally arespiration process. Thus, fermentation is a generally anaerobicprocess.

As used herein, the term “liquid culture” refers to a culture of cellsor organisms that is carried out with the cells or organisms primarilysuspended in a liquid growth medium.

As used herein, the term “lipid” refers insoluble compounds that aresoluble in nonpolar (e.g., chloroform and benzene) solvents.

As used herein, the term “hydrocarbon” refers to a particular class oflipids, with particular emphasis on the aliphatic hydrocarbons, such asn-alkanes and n-alkenes. It should also be noted that n-alkanes tend tobe odd-numbered as they result from enzymatic decarboxylation of fattyacids.

As used herein, the term “fatty acid” refers to compounds the buildingblocks of lipids and exist in free forms (e.g., free fatty acids), boundforms (e.g., through ester linkages in lipid classes such as wax esters,triacylglycerols, and phospholipids), and in combination with otherbiochemical classes such as glycolipids (macromolecules formed bycombination of lipids with carbohydrates) and lipoproteins(macromolecules formed by the combination of lipids with proteins). Asused herein, the term fatty acids includes even-chain, odd-chain orcombinations of both even- and odd-chain fatty acids.

As used herein, the term “n-alkanols” (fatty alcohols) are a type oflipid synthesized by enzymatic reduction of fatty acids.

As used herein, the term “neutral lipids” are defined as (lipidweight)/(cell dry weight) produced by the organism under definedconditions.

As used herein, the term “secretion” refers to a process whereby abiological molecule is transported from the inside of the cell to theoutside of the cell via a process that does not involve concomitant celldeath.

As used herein, the term “lipid body secretion” refers to a processwhereby lipid bodies are secreted.

As used herein, the term “lipid body” also referred to as “oil body” isa subcellular organelle that is enriched in lipids and/or biologicaloils. Lipid bodies can be enriched in particular kinds of lipids,including, but not limited to triacylglycerols. It should be noted thatlipid bodies may comprise inorganic molecules, protein, small organicmolecules, ions, and other biological biologicals associated with them.

While the present invention includes, as an example, a biofuel made byD. hansenii, other oleaginous yeast and oleaginous bacteria may be usedwith the present invention. Examples of oleaginous yeast that may beused with the present invention include, but are not limited to:Yarrowia, Candida, Rhodotorula, Rhodosporidium, Cryptococcus,Trichosporon and Lipomyces. Other examples of oil-synthesizing yeastinclude: Rhodosporidium toruloides, Lipomyces starkeyii, Lipomyceslipoferus, Candida revkaufi, Candida pulcherrima, Candida tropicalis,Candida utilis, Candida valida, Candida utilis, Codermyces poitrasii,Cryptococcus curvatus, Cryptococcus albidus, Pichia angusta,Trichosporon pullans, Trichosporon cutaneum, Rhodotorula glutinus,Rhodotorula graminis and Yarrowia lipolytics (formerly classified asCandida lipolytics). As used herein, the term “oleaginous yeast,” refersto those microorganisms classified as yeast that can accumulate at least25% of their dry cell weight as oil. Examples of oleaginous yeastinclude (but are not limited to) the following genera: Yarrowia,Candida, Rhodotorula, Rhodosporidium, Cryptococcus, Trichosporon andLipomyces. Examples of bacteria that may be used in conjunction with thepresent invention include, but are not limited to, Rhodococcus opacus,Klebsiella, Clostridium or Escherichia.

Example 1 Growth and Lipid Accumulation of D. hansenii

FIG. 1 shows plates with the growth of D. hansenii on sugarcane juice.D. hansenii (Dh) and S. cerevisiae (Sc) grown on medium A containingglucose or various concentrations of sugarcane juice. Minimal media weresupplemented with 1.5% yeast extract as well as 5%, 10%, 25%, and 50%(v/v) sugarcane juice. D. hansenii grew well on media containing up to50% sugarcane juice and S. cerevisiae did not grow on media containingmore than 5% of the sugarcane juice. Lipid accumulation was indicated byNile Red fluorescence in D. hansenii but not in S. cerevisiae.

FIG. 2 shows plates with the growth of D. hansenii using sugarcanebagasse extracts as carbon source. D. hansenii (Dh) and S. cerevisiae(Sc) inoculated on minimal media containing sugarcane bagasse extractsusing sulfuric acid or water as solvents. Crushed or uncrushed sugarcanebagasse were pre-treated with 2% sulfuric acid or water at 121° C., 15psi for 45 min. The supernatant were collected and supplemented in themedia at 50% (v/v), and pHs of the media were adjusted to 5.5 with NaOHpellets.

FIG. 3 is a graph that shows the growth of D. hansenii in liquid mediawith various concentrations of glucose. D. hansenii growth in Media Awith various concentrations of glucose (0, 0.05, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 5, 10,15, 20%) and various concentrations of NH₄Cl (low: 0.01 g/L; high: 5g/L). D. hansenii were inoculated in various liquid media and culturedat 30° C. for 120 hr and plated on YPD.

FIG. 4 shows plates with the growth and oleagenicity of D. hansenii onglucose and glycerol containing media. Comparison of D. hansenii (Dh)and S. cerevisiae (Sc) grown on minimal media. All media weresupplemented with 1.5% yeast extract as well as (A) no carbon source,(B) 30 g/L glucose, (C) 10% glycerol, (D) 20% glycerol, (E) 30%glycerol, or (F) 40% glycerol. Plates were illuminated with UV lightsource (302 nm) to demonstrate lipid accumulation indicated by in vivolipid staining using Nile Red, which is also supplemented in the media,and upon excitation, fluoresced red in D. hansenii. Photographs weretaken 6 days post inoculation.

FIG. 5 shows a time course of lipid accumulation in D. hansenii. Lipidsaccumulation in D. hansenii when grown on minimal media containing 0.5μg/mL Nile Red plus 20% glycerol or 30 g/L glucose two to six days postinoculation. Cultures were photographed every 24 hr. On glycerolsubstrate, D. hansenii cells fluorescent on day four (red arrow) whileon glucose substrate, D. hansenii cells fluorescence on day three (greenarrow).

FIG. 6 are micrographs that show the cellular lipid accumulation in D.hansenii. Fluorescence microscopy of lipids loaded D. hansenii grown onglycerol. D. hansenii was grown on minimal media containing Nile Red(0.5 μg/mL) with glycerol (B and E) or glucose (C and F) as carbonsources. Stained with Nile Red (E and F), lipid accumulated in D.hansenii cells fluoresced upon UV excitation (560 nm) (E and F), whilenon-stained cells (D) did not fluoresce. Scale bar=10 μm.

FIG. 7 are graphs that show the growth of D. hansenii in liquid media.A. Growth kinetics of D. hansenii in YPD liquid medium at 25° C. and 30°C. B. D. hansenii grown in minimal media (MM) with glucose (30 g/L) asthe sole carbon source. C. D. hansenii grown in minimal medium (MM) with20% glycerol (v/v) as the sole carbon source. LN: 0.1 g/L NH₄Cl lownitrogen concentration; HN: 5 g/L NH₄Cl high nitrogen concentration; LS:14 mM NaCl low salt concentration; MS: 0.8M NaCl medium saltconcentration; HS: 1.6M NaCl high salt concentration. Approximate hoursat which cells entered exponential growth phase were 12, 48 and 72 hrfor A, B and C, respectively.

TABLE 1 Biomass of D. hansenii and S. cerevisiae. Cultures initiatedwith 1 × 10⁶ cells/mL in 1 L of Medium A grown to saturation after 4days in shake culture (150 rpm at 30° C.). Final Cell Wet^(a) Dry^(b)count weight/L weight/L Organism Medium (per mL) (g) (g) SaccharomycesMedium A  3.3 × 10⁷ 2.51 0.64 cerevisiae (with glucose) DebaryomycesMedium A 1.16 × 10⁸ 7.14 2.3  hansenii (with glucose) DebaryomycesMedium A with 20% 1.73 × 10⁸ 8.88 3.31 hansenii glycerol (no glucose)^(a)Wet weight determined by pelleting cells by centrifugation; ^(b)Dryweight determined by lyophilizing pellets.

TABLE 2 D. hansenii lipid composition. All lipids were extracted andanalyzed using the method of Canuel and Martens (1996). Identificationof individual compounds were based on relative retention times ofstandard compounds and subsequently verified with combined gaschromatography-mass spectrometry. The results here indicate that oleicacid and hexadecane are the most abundant long-chain fatty acids andhydrocarbons in D. hansenii. It should be noted that long-chainn-alkanes (e.g., C₂₇, C₂₉, and C₃₁) are generally found in theepicuticular waxes of vascular plants (Bianchi, 2007, and referencestherein). In contrast, short-chain n-alkanes (e.g., C₁₅, C₁₇, and C₁₉),are derived from algal sources. However, some compounds within C₂₀ toC₂₈ range are likely produced by bacteria. Earlier work by by Merdingerand Devine (1965) also showed high concentrations of oleic acid, as wellas the C22 hydrocarbon anthanthrene, with some hydrocarbons ranging ashigh C39. Overall, our results did show significant effects of growthmedia and N-limitation on the relative percentages and composition oflipids in D. hansenii. Percent relative abundance of fatty acids,n-alkanols, and hydrocarbons in D. hansenii grown in media containingglucose, glycerol or YPD. MA with 30 g/L MA with 20% Glucose GlycerolYPD Compound (high C/N) (high C/N) (low C/N) Class (% of total) (% oftotal) (% of total) Fatty Acids C-16:1 (oleic acid) 72.7 55.0 81.0 C-17(unknown) 3.1 2.5 C-20 (unknown) 14.3 25.0 C-30 (unknown) 9.9 20.0 16.5n-alkanols C-30 95.6 10.5 C-40 4.4 89.5 Hydrocarbons C-16 (hexadecane)77.9 96.2 25.0 C-16 (unknown) 5.4 0.3 12.5 C-17 3.5 C-20 2.3 C-26 0.9C-27 6.3 37.5 C-30 3.6 C-35 2.3 C-36 1.4 25.0 C-40 C-44

FIGS. 8A and 8B show the lipid accumulation in D. hansenii on mediacontaining salt. Lipids-loaded D. hansenii grown on Nile red andglucose- or glycerol-containing solid medium at 25° C. (A) or 30° C.(B). Differences in Nile Red staining of serial dilutions of D. hanseniicells grown on media containing high (HN: 5 g/L) or low concentrationsof NH₄Cl (LN: 0.1 g/L) were insignificant. Fluorescence of Nile Redstained D. hansenii grown on various NaCl concentrations (LS: 14 mM, MS:0.8M, and HS: 1.6M) were similar in strength. Cells grown at 30° C. hadslightly stronger fluorescence than that of 25° C.

FIG. 9 shows the growth of D. hansenii on crude glycerol. D. hansenii(Dh) and S. cerevisiae (Sc) grown on minimal media containing variousconcentrations of crude glycerol generated from a biodiesel plant.Minimal media were supplemented with 1.5% yeast extract as well as 5%(A), 10% (B), 20% (C), 30% (D) and 40% (F) filtered (upper panels) orunfiltered (lower panel) crude glycerol. D. hansenii grew well on mediacontaining up to 30% of the crude glycerol and S. cerevisiae did notgrow on media containing more than 5% of the crude glycerol. Lipidaccumulation was indicated by Nile Red fluorescence in D. hansenii butnot in S. cerevisiae.

FIG. 10 is a graph that shows inhibition of microbial contamination withsalt in growing cultures of D. hansenii. Microbial growth in non-steriletap water-based media with crude glycerol from a biodiesel plant andvarious concentrations of NaCl. D. hansenii were inoculated in variousliquid media and cultured at 30° C. for 48 hr and plated on YPD. Allmicrobe colonies formed on solid YPD plates were counted. Totalosmolarity of the media calculated based on NaCl and glycerol wereindicated in red below the X-axis label. Total osmolarity of 1.5Minhibited contamination of cultures from other microbes.

FIG. 11 is a graph that shows inhibition of microbial contamination withsalt in growing cultures of D. hansenii. Microbial growth in non-steriletap water with crude glycerol from a biodiesel plant and variousconcentrations of NaCl. D. hansenii were inoculated in various liquidmedia and cultured at 30° C. for 48 hr and plated on YPD. All microbecolonies formed on solid YPD plates were counted.

FIG. 12 is a graph that shows the salt-tolerance of D. hansenii.Microbial growth in non-sterile tap water-based media with crudeglycerol from a biodiesel plant and various concentrations of NaClplotted again osmolarity of the media. D. hansenii were inoculated invarious liquid media and cultured at 30° C. for 48 hr and plated on YPD.All microbe colonies formed on solid YPD plates were counted. D.hansenii tolerated salt to osmolarity of 2.9 M.

FIG. 13 shows the Growth of D. hansenii on pure carbon sources. D.hansenii (Dh) and S. cerevisiae (Sc) grown on minimal media containingno carbon source, 30 g/L of glucose, arabinose, xylose,carboxymethylcellulose or cellobiose. D. hansenii grew well on mediacontaining glucose, arabinose and cellobiose. Lipid accumulation wasindicated by Nile Red fluorescence in D. hansenii grown on glucose butnot on cellobiose.

FIG. 14 is a graph that shows the growth of D. hansenii in liquid mediacontaining Avicel (microcrystalline cellulose) and cellulase—treatedAvicel. Growth of D. hansenii in liquid media containing cellulose(avicel) or cellulosic biomass (sugarcane bagasse).—c: no carbon source;CB: acid pretreated crushed bagasse; UCB: acid pretreated uncrushedbagasse; NTCB: non-treated crushed bagasse; Avicel/C: cellulase digestedAvicel; CB/C: cellulase digested acid pretreated crushed bagasse; UCB/C:cellulase digested acid pretreated uncrushed bagasse; NTCB/C: cellulasedigested non-treated crushed bagasse. Glucose and bagasse (dry) wereadded to the media at 30 g/L.

FIG. 15 is a graph that shows growth of D. hansenii usingcellulase-treated sugarcane bagasse as carbon source. Growth of D.hansenii in liquid media containing cellulose (avicel) or cellulosicbiomass (sugarcane bagasse).—c: no carbon source; CB: acid pretreatedcrushed bagasse; UCB: acid pretreated uncrushed bagasse; NTCB:non-treated crushed bagasse; Avicel/C: cellulase digested Avicel; CB/C:cellulase digested acid pretreated crushed bagasse; UCB/C: cellulasedigested acid pretreated uncrushed bagasse; NTCB/C: cellulase digestednon-treated crushed bagasse. Glucose and bagasse (dry) were added to themedia at 30 g/L.

FIG. 16 shows a D. hansenii hygromycin sensitivity test. D. hansenii issensitive to hygromycin. Various amount of D. hansenii cells wereinoculated on plates containing 0 (a), 50 (b), 100 (c) or 150 (d) μg/mLhygromycin. A working concentration of 100 μg/mL medium for hygromycinresistance gene transformation into D. hansenii can be used.

TABLE 3 Growth and oleagenicity of D. hansenii on pure oligosaccharidesCarbon source Growth Oleagenicity Glucose +++ Yes Arabinose +++ NoXylose + No Cellobiose ++ No CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose) ++ No Avicel(microcrystalline cellulose) ++ No

As will be apparent to one skilled in the arts, the invention has broadimplications beyond oleaginous microbes, and can be readily extended—byone skilled in the arts, to other kinds organisms, including but notlimited to green algae.

The present invention includes systems and methods for the conversion ofshort-chain carbohydrates from biofuel formation and cellulosic biomassinto high energy fuels. The present invention may be used with one ormore known methods for final recovery of hydrocarbons and other lipids.The recovery of long chain fatty acids and hydrocarbons may include ofone or several steps. For maximum recovery of fatty acids andhydrocarbons, water content of yeast cells may be reduced to 10-20% w/wby a suitable method. Suitable methods include oven drying, spraydraying, drum drying, pneumatic flush drying and similar method used infood, feed and chemical industries. Dried cell biomass can then beground/homogenized/sheared in the presence of organic solvent or amixture of organic solvents. Organic solvents of choice may includehexane, mixture of hexane and ethanol, chloroform and methanol. Organicsolvent(s) are separated from the lipophilic compounds (fatty acids andhydrocarbons) by evaporation to yield a solvent-free mixture of fattyacids and hydrocarbons that are further processed into biodiesel,gasoline or jet fuel.

Strains. D. hansenii strain NRRL Y-1448 (ATCC 10619) and S. cerevisiaestrain BY4742 were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection(Virginia, USA) and maintained on YPD agar (casein peptone 2%, yeastextract 1%, glucose 2%, 1.5% agar; USB Corporation, Ohio, USA).

Culture media and cultivation conditions. For liquid culture, singlecolony of D. hansenii or S. cerevisiae were pre-cultured in 2 mL YPD orother desired media (see below) and incubated at 30° C. for 24 hr. Cellswere counted using a hemacytometer and spun down at 3000 rpm for 15minutes. Cells at a concentration of 1×10⁶/mL were used to inoculate thedesired media with 1% of the total volume. Medium A with limitednitrogen source (glucose 30 g/L, yeast extract 1.5 g/L, NH₄Cl 0.1 g/L,KH₂PO₄ 7.0 g/L, Na₂HPO₄ 1.983 g/L, MgSO₄.7H₂O 1.5 g/L, FeCl₃.6H₂O 0.08g/L, ZnSO₄.7H₂O 0.01 g/L, CaCl₂.2H₂O 0.1 g/L, MnSO₄.H₂O 0.07 mg/L,CuSO₄.5H₂O 0.1 mg/L, Co(NO₃)₂.6H₂O 0.1 mg/L, pH 5.5; see Kimura et al.,2004) was used to support the growth of D. hansenii and induce cellularlipid accumulation. Medium A with sufficient nitrogen supply (NH₄Cl 5g/L) was used to support growth without the induction of lipidaccumulation. To test the growth of D. hansenii on carbon sources otherthan glucose, glucose was dropped out from medium A and replaced withdesired carbon sources at the same concentration except for glycerol,which was at 10% or 20% (v/v). Sorgum juice was obtained from Departmentof Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, and had an averagesugar content of 13.42% (brix %). For making media containing sorghumjuice, raw juice was filter sterilized and added in the media at variousconcentrations of 5%, 10%, 25%, and 50% (v/v). Crude glycerol (FutureFuel Chemical Company, Arkansas, USA) contained 6% water, 88% glycerol,2.564% ash by weight.

Nile red plate staining assay. Nile red(9-diethylamino-5H-benzo[α]phenoxazine-5-one) obtained fromSigma-Aldrich (Missouri, USA) was dissolved in Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)at a concentration of 0.5 mg/mL and supplemented in medium A at a finalconcentration of 0.5 μg/mL. For direct observation of cellular lipidaccumulation, D. hansenii grown on solid medium A with Nile red wereobserved using a UV light source (312 nm) as described (Spiekemann etal., 1999).

Growth, lipid accumulation and substrate utilization kinetics. Forgrowth kinetics studies, D. hansenii cells were inoculated in 2 mL ofdesired media and cultured overnight. Then 500 uL D. hansenii cellsuspension at a concentration of 10⁶ cells/mL were inoculated into 50 mLmedia and incubated at 30° C. Optical cell density was measured at 590nm on a microplate reader SPECTRAFluor (Tecan Group Ltd., Männedorf,Switzland) every 12 hr for 84-96 hr. Total lipid accumulation weredetermined by Nile red fluorescence with the method by Kimura et al.(ref). Glucose concentration in growth media at different growth stageswere determined using LabAssay™ Glucose (Wako Chemicals USA, Inc.Richmond, Va.). Glycerol/triglyceride concentrations in growth media atdifferent growth stages were determined using Triglyceride Assay Kit(Cayman Chemical Company, Ann Arbor, Mich.). All experiments wereperformed in triplicates.

Fluorescent microscopy. After cultivation on Nile red supplemented solidmedia, cells were suspended in sterile water and mounted on a microslidefor microscopy. Microscopic photographs were taken with an Olympus BX51microscope (Olympus America, New York, USA) equipped with an OlympusDP70 camera using a 530-550 nm excitation filter, a 570 nm diachronicmirror and a 590 nm emission filter with a 60× objective lens.

Osmostress tolerance study. For growth comparison in liquid media (madewith tap water and no sterilization was involved) containing osmolytes,D. hansenii cells were inoculated in 2 mL of the desired media, andaliquots were spread on YPD plates and cells were counted ascolony-forming units after 2 days of growth at 30° C.

Treatment of cellulosic materials. Crushed (dry and chopped) anduncrushed (wet and untreated) sugarcane bagasse were obtained fromfield. For pretreatment with acid, 100 g crushed and 200 g of uncrushedbagasse were soaked individually in 1 L 2% H₂SO₄ and autoclaved at 121°C. and 16 psi for 60 min. Then the bagasse was kept at room temperaturein acid for 2 hr. The liquid was filtered through whatman filter paperfollowed by continuous wash of the bagasse with deionized water till pH7. Medium A containing sugarcane bagasse extract were made using theflow through and the pH was adjusted to 5.5. For pretreatment withwater, the same procedures were followed using deionized water for theinitial treatment. Avicel was obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.).Cellulase (108 U/mg dry weight) was obtained from Worthington (Lakewood,N.J.). Stock enzyme solution was prepared in deionized water at 10 mg/mLand filter sterilized. For cellulase treatment, 1 mg (100 μL) enzymewere added to cellulosic materials and incubated at 37° C. overnight.

Example 2 Oleaginous Microbes to Provide Bioenergy Feedstocks and HighValue Transportation Fuels

Utilization of biofuels provides the promise of reducing greenhouse gasemissions and enhancing domestic energy independence. However, currentplatforms for biofuel production are inefficient. For example, biodieselsynthesis via transesterification of oil seeds yields a 10% waste streamof glycerol. Harnessing microbes to convert this waste stream directlyto biodiesel has the potential of dramatically improving the economicsof the industry. D. hansenii is a notable microbe because it isoleagenic, producing greater than 50% of its biomass as long chainhydrocarbons, fatty acids and sterols. Remarkably this yeast can utilizeglycerol as its sole carbon source. Therefore D. hansenii shows greatpromise for the direct conversion of the glycerol waste stream intohigh-energy transportation fuels. To harness this extraordinary capacityfor the biofuels industry, the present invention developed compositionsand methods to optimize hydrocarbon synthesis. Furthermore, downstreamoptimization of metabolic pathways requires an enhanced understanding ofthe genetic pathways that contribute to glycerol utilization andhydrocarbon synthesis.

Biofuels hold great promise for reducing greenhouse gas emissions andenhancing domestic energy independence [1-3]. In addition, theactivities of the biofuel industry are expected to positively impact thedevelopment of rural and agricultural economies, including impoverishedregions along the U.S.-Mexico border where agriculture is a particularlyimportant to the regional economy [4-6]. Despite this promise, thebiofuel industry remains plagued by production inefficiencies that mayjeopardize its long-term viability [3, 7, 8]. Therefore, technologiesthat improve the efficiency and economics of biofuel production arecritical to the success of the industry [2, 9].

A salient example of biofuel production inefficiency is associated withbiodiesel synthesis, where large quantities of glycerol wastes aregenerated during the refining process. With every 100 kg of biodieselproduced by the transesterification of oil seeds, 10 kg of crudeglycerol are generated. Processes that can capture value from this wastestream by converting crude glycerol into high value products have thepotential to dramatically improve the economics of the industry. Infact, the efficient utilization of this waste stream has been recognizedas being critical to the economic viability of the industry [10, 11].Recently, microbes that ferment glycerol into ethanol have beendescribed [12-15]. However, ethanol is not compatible with existingtransportation infrastructure, and possesses less energy per moleculethan gasoline and other long-chain hydrocarbons. Therefore, technologiesthat enable the direct bioconversion of glycerol into long-chainhydrocarbons, including biodiesel and jet fuel, hold significantpromise. The present invention is a novel biotechnology platform, theoleaginous and halotolerant yeast D. hansenii [16], for the directbioconversion of glycerol into high-energy transportation.

Oleaginous microbes provide a compelling route for converting bioenergyfeedstocks into high value transportation fuels. By definition,oleaginous microbes are organisms in which long-chain hydrocarbons andlipids constitute greater than 25% of the cell dry weight [17-21]. Todate, several oleaginous microbes have been described, includingoleaginous bacteria (e.g., Rhodococcus opacus, Nocardia restricta,Mycobacterium avium) and yeasts (e.g., Debaryomyces sp., Rhodosporidiumsp., Rhodotorula sp., and Lipomyces sp.) [17, 18, 20].

Oleaginous yeasts possess several intriguing properties. First, severalspecies can grow on a variety of carbon sources, including xylose,glucose, and arabinose [16, 22]. Debaryomyces is notable for its abilityto grow on glycerol as the sole carbon source (see below). In addition,oleaginous yeasts produce triacylglycerides (TAGs) with long-chain fattyacids (LCFA), comparable to those found in vegetable oils (e.g., canola,palm, corn, coconut, and jatropha oils), animal fats, and microalgae([23], and references therein). Finally, several oleaginous species growrapidly in culture in both rich and selective media, and hence areamenable to laboratory manipulation [24]. Therefore, oleaginous yeastsconstitute a viable candidate for the synthesis of long chainhydrocarbons used in biodiesel production.

Growth conditions that lead to maximal accumulation of lipids inoleaginous yeasts have been investigated [25]. In general, mostoleaginous yeasts grown in continuous culture will accumulate lipids ifan adequate carbon (C) source, such as glucose, is available ([25], andreferences therein). However, maximal accumulation of lipids in thesemicrobes, typically in the form of intracellular oil droplets, occursduring a transition where the carbon source remains plentiful, butanother nutrient, particularly nitrogen (N), is limiting [26, 27]. Forexample, in the yeast Cryptococcus curvatus, not only does maximum lipidproduction (ca. 0.59 g lipid L⁻¹ h⁻¹) occur during N limitation, but thecomposition of fatty acid constituents of the accumulated lipids arealtered under this growth condition [28, 29]. During the high growthphase of C. curvatus, C_(18:2) (linoleic acid) is the dominant componentof membranes; this is followed by a dominance of C_(18:0) (stearic acid)and C_(18:1) (oleic acid), reflective of storage TAGs in a lateraccumulation phase. Typically, after the N source is exhausted, C.curvatus cell numbers and lipid-free biomass accumulation ceases. Thenintracellular lipids accumulate—reaching greater than 60% of the drycell weight [30, 31]. In addition to the three aforementioned LCFAs,some other LCFA commonly found in oleaginous fungi are C_(16:0)(palmitic acid) and C_(16:1) (palmitoleic acid) [32, 33]. Other work hasshown that some of N limitation effects may be linked to a decrease inthe abundance of adenosine monophosphate (AMP), via an AMP deaminaseenzyme that adaptively liberates nitrogen from AMP in the form ofammonium [34, 35]. The dominant fatty acids in C. curvatus grown onglucose are oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids [36]. Similarly, thedominant fatty acids in the lipids of glucose-grown D. hansenii arepalmitic acid (23.7%) and oleic acid (50.1%), with 59.7% of all of thefatty acids being unsaturated [37]. In addition, the hydrocarbons in D.hansenii range from C₁₆ to C₃₉ and are dominated by C₂₂. Finally,previous work has demonstrated D. hansenii contains ergo sterol, stigmasterol and another unidentified sterol [37].

The molecular mechanisms mediating fatty acid biosynthesis andtriacylglyceride (TAG) accumulation in yeast have been best described inthe non-oleagenous model S. cerevisiae [38, 39], which is closelyrelated to D. hansenii. Importantly, insights gained in this system haveproven useful for understanding lipid accumulation in several oleaginousmicrobes [40, 41], including Debaryomyces [16], which shares manyconserved genes. TAG synthesis in Saccharomyces proceeds in a stepwisefashion. First, phosphatidic acid (PA) and diacylglycerol (DAG) aresynthesized. During PA synthesis, glycerol 3-phosphate G-3-P isdiacylated to yield PA. Alternatively, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)is acylated by DHAP acyltransferase (DHAPAT) to form 1-acyl-DHAP. Thismolecule is then reduced by 1-acyl-DHAP reductase (ADR) to yieldlysophosphatidic acid (LPA). This product is then acylated to form PA.PA can also be formed from phospholipids through the action of aphospholipase D, or by phosphorylation of DAG through DAG kinase.Dephosphorylation of PA by a phosphatidate phosphatase (PAP) yields DAG.Finally, diacylglycerol acyltransferases (DAGATs) convert DAG to TAGusing assorted acyl donors. The ability of certain oleaginous yeasts toaccumulate lipids may also be strongly linked to having another enzyme,ATP: citrate lyase (ACL), not found in non-oleaginous yeasts [42].

Yeasts also accumulate unesterified long chain hydrocarbons, which canrange from 0.01 to as much as 10.2% of the cell dry weight in aerobicand anaerobic conditions, respectively [43]. In fact, D. hansenii is oneof three yeasts know to produce these hydrocarbons [44], the other twoare Candida guilliermondii and Saccharomyces cerervisiae [43]. Theeffects of C. substrate have also been shown to affect the compositionof hydrocarbons in yeasts. For example, C. tropicalis grown on glucosetypically produces mid-chain alkanes (C₁₆-C₁₉), while 49 to 66% of thealkanes are in long-chain (C₂₂-C₂₅) when grown on glycerol. The role ofunesterified hydrocarbons in yeasts and other microorganisms remainsunclear but are most likely used as membrane support structures.Nevertheless, these stable long-chain hydrocarbons are potentially veryuseful in development of biodiesel from yeast cells.

The present invention include compositions and methods including theculture conditions for, and strains of, the oleaginous and halotolerantyeast D. hansenii, which supports the direct bioconversion of glyceroland other carbon sources into biodiesel and other high-energy fuel oils.D. hansenii constitutes a compelling bioconversion platform. First,unlike S. cerevisiae, D. hansenii possesses the remarkable ability tomediate the biotransformation of glycerol into high value long-chainhydrocarbons and lipids commonly used for biodiesel synthesis ([37], ourpreliminary data). In fact, when D. hansenii is grown on glycerol,neutral lipids constitute ˜50% of the dry weight of the organism (ourpreliminary data, see below). Importantly, glycerol utilization appearsto be a property that is reserved for only a few of the oleaginousyeasts described to date. The genome sequence of D. hansenii has beendetermined (cbi.labri.fr/Genolevures/) and key tools for the geneticmanipulation of the organism. For example, tools for transformation andheterologous gene expression have been developed for D. hansenii [45,46]. Finally, D. hansenii grows rapidly under high salt conditions wherethe risk of contamination to industrial-scale bioreactors is limited([47, 48], our preliminary data). Therefore, D. hansenii provides apotentially powerful platform for addressing a critical need in thebiofuel industry.

The feasibility of developing D. hansenii into an economically viablebiofuel platform is linked to the yield and composition of neutrallipids [defined as (lipid weight)/(cell dry weight)] produced by theorganism under defined conditions. Higher yields translate into a moreattractive process. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanismsthat determine the net yield of neutral lipids produced by D. hanseniiunder defined conditions constitutes a critical milestone itsdevelopment as a biofuel platform. Before the described studies, asystematic analysis of the molecular genetic and culture conditiondependent parameters that influence yield has not been attempted in thisorganism. This invention attacks this issue by defining modified genes(and corresponding biochemical pathways) that regulate the yield ofharvestable (i.e., secreted) oils in D. hansenii.

As stated above, several oleaginous microbes have been described, andtheir extraordinary potential for biofuel synthesis has been documented.However, the extraction of microbial oils from cells, which aresequestered within cytoplasmic oil bodies, is costly, time-consuming,and prevents continuous cultivation and oil harvesting. Overcoming theseobstacles is required for the long-term economic viability of thisapproach. Discoveries that render currently inaccessible oil bodiesavailable for efficient extraction have the potential to dramaticallytransform the industry. We uncovered, modified, and exploited a novel“microdiesel” platform that uses the oleaginous yeast D. hansenii forthe conversion of biomass into high-energy biocrude. This microbepossesses compelling properties for biofuel synthesis (Table 4). Mostimportantly, however, we have shown that this remarkable microbe canactively release oil into the environment, which creates uniqueopportunities for delivering next generation microbial oil solutions.

TABLE 4 Properties for biofuel synthesis. Debaryomyces microdieselProperties Baker's yeast Debaryomyces platform Salt tolerance 1.7M NaCl4M NaCl Few competing demands pH tolerance 5-7 3-10 Few competingdemands Oil accumulation Low neutral lipids Large quantities of Directconversion of lipids (<5%) neutral lipid (20-50%) Growth rate Very fast(1.5-2 Fast (3-4 High yield potential hours/doubling) hours/doubling)Substrate No growth on Use glycerol and Enhanced refinery utilizationglycerol and cellobiose while profitability cellobiose synthesizing oilCo-products Few Biopolymers Added value Protein Polysaccharides GeneticsSuperb Good Engineered strains and designer oil production Oilextraction No release Oil actively released Low cost in oil separationCell breakage Aqueous extraction required enabled

Autophagy is a catabolic process in which (an energy starved) celldegrades its own components. The phenomena is highly organized, andtightly regulated, and critical to the maintenance of cellularhomeostasis under a variety of stress and developmental conditions andprocesses, respectively. It is a major mechanism by which a starvingcell reallocates nutrients from unnecessary processes to more-essentialprocesses. Autophagic events occur within the autophagosome—a specialorganelle that contains membrane that is derived from the endoplasmicreticulum. Autophagosomes can fuse with the lysosome, which drives thedigestion and processing of molecules contained within theautophagosome.

One key aspect of the invention described here is that modulation ofautophagosome pathways can drive the secretion of oil bodies frommicrobial cells. This unexpected finding provides unique opportunitiesto generate that can secrete oil at high efficiency.

One embodiment of the invention includes a process whereby a natural orgenetically engineered variant of an archaeal, eukaryotic or prokaryoticcell secretes oil. The process involves either growing the cell underconditions that promote secretion or engineering the cell to containcomponents that modulate the amount of secretion or the composition ofoils and/or lipids that are secreted.

In the case where oil secretion is achieved in a process of cultivatingthe cell under conditions that promote oil secretion, severalcultivation conditions have been defined. These include, but are notlimited to, conditions in which the cell is grown under low nitrogen(e.g., nitrogen starvation) or nitrogen limiting conditions that havebeen established to induce autophagy [60-63].

In an exemplary embodiment of this invention, D. hansenii produces largeamount of oils when grown under conditions of nitrogen starvation ornitrogen limitation. Electron microscopy could be used to verify oilaccumulation by cells under low nitrogen conditions. Electronmicrographs were taken for D. hansenii cells grown at 30° C. in Medium Awith glucose (30 g/L) under low nitrogen conditions (0.1 g/L) with orwithout 100 nM wortmannin treatment (a PI-3 kinase inhibitor) for 48 hr(FIGS. 17 and 18), 120 hr (FIGS. 19 and 20) and 192 hr (FIGS. 21 and 22)post inoculation. In both wortmannin-treated and untreated cells,intracellular lipid bodies enlarged over time, but remained physicallyseparated from vacuolar and nuclear compartments. Wortmannin-treatedcells had alterations in the intracellular membrane morphology that aredistinct from the untreated cells (FIGS. 17, 19 and 21). FIG. 17.Electron micrographs of D. hansenii cells derived fromwortmannin-treated, 48 hr liquid cultures. Lipid bodies (large whiteinclusions) are physically separated from vacuolar and nuclearcompartments. FIG. 18. Electron micrographs of D. hansenii cells derivedfrom untreated 48 hr liquid cultures. Lipid bodies (large whiteinclusions) are physically separated from vacuolar and nuclearcompartments. FIG. 19. Electron micrographs of D. hansenii cells derivedfrom wortmannin-treated 120 hr liquid cultures. Lipid bodies (largewhite inclusions) are physically separated from vacuolar and nuclearcompartments. Alterations in intracellular membrane morphology (comparedto control) are also observed. FIG. 20. Electron micrographs of D.hansenii cells derived from untreated 120 hr liquid cultures. Lipidbodies (large white inclusions) are physically separated from vacuolarand nuclear compartments. In addition, the data demonstrate an increasein intracellular lipid over time in this media (glucose containing richmedium). FIG. 21. Electron micrographs of D. hansenii cells derived fromwortmannin-treated 196 hr liquid cultures. Lipid bodies (large whiteinclusions) are physically separated from vacuolar and nuclearcompartments. Alterations in intracellular membrane morphology (comparedto control) are also observed. FIG. 22. Electron micrographs of D.hansenii cells derived from untreated 196 hr liquid cultures. Lipidbodies (very large white inclusions) remain physically separated fromvacuolar and nuclear compartments.

Importantly, it was found that nitrogen starvation promotedextracellular oil accumulation. In particular, a portion of the oilssynthesized by D. hansenii was found in the extracellular fraction aftergrowth under these conditions. In glass flasks with D. hanseniicultures, a thin layer of hydrophobic materials was attached to thehydrophobic wall (inset FIG. 23). Liquid cultures of D. hansenii werestained with Nile red and observed under a fluorescent microscopy, andfluorescent vesicles containing lipids were observed in the culturemedium (FIG. 23). [FIG. 23. Extracellular vesicles (arrow head) fromcultures of D. hansenii were stained with Nile red and observed underthe fluorescent microscope. Insets: release of hydrophobic materialsattached to the glass wall from culture of D. hansenii in medium Acontaining 30 g/L of glucose and 0.1 g/L NH₄Cl.

The lipid body release was determined microscopically. Lowconcentrations of wortmannin (100 nM) and LY 294002 (15 μM), two PI-3kinase inhibitors, both failed to affect the growth of D. hansenii inmedium A with glucose under low nitrogen conditions (FIG. 24). However,the lipid bodies released from D. hansenii cells treated with wortmanninsignificantly reduced to lower than 10 per 100 cells at 144 hr postinoculation, comparing to more than 80 per 100 cells from the untreatedcontrol cells (FIG. 25A, FIG. 26A-E). Meanwhile, the cell viabilitiesremained unaffected (FIG. 25B, FIG. 26A-E). These results indicated thatthe lipid body release we observed was rather an active andwortmannin-responsive process than a cell lysis related phenomenon. FIG.24. Growth and lipid accumulation of D. hansenii in the absence andpresence of PI-3 kinase inhibitors LY 294002 and wortmannin. FIG. 25.Secretion of lipid by D. hansenii. Treatment of 100 nM wortmanninreduced the number of extracellular lipid bodies (A) while cellviability (B) were not affected. Cell viability was determined by FUN1stain and microscopic observation and quantifications. The datademonstrate the secretion of lipid bodies by the yeast. FIGS. 26A-26E.Time course of lipid secretion by D. hansenii demonstrates that lipidsecretion requires PI3 kinase activity. Treatment of 100 nM wortmanninreduced the number of extracellular lipid bodies over a time course oftreatment. However, cell viability was not affected. Cell viability wasdetermined by FUN1 stain and microscopic observation and quantification.The data demonstrate the secretion of lipid bodies by the yeast. 26 A. 0hr, 26 B. 48 hr, 26 C. 96 hr, 26 D. 120 hr, and 26 E. 144 hr.

In one embodiment of the present invention, specific fractions of oilsare secreted. D. hansenii was used as an exemplary microbe to examineaccumulation and secretion of lipid bodies. It should be emphasizedhowever that the present invention is not limited to this microbialspecies.

Lipid body secretion was examined in D. hansenii in low nitrogen mediumA, grown for 5 days at 28° C., 250 rpm. Different fractions of thecultures were extracted and analyzed for the presence of the lipid andproteins structures. It was determined whether the organism was capableof displaying specificity in the species of secreted/extracellularlipids structures, that is, whether the secreted fraction had adifferent composition than the non-secreted counterpart. Demonstrationof such specificity reduces to practice whereby “designer” oils/lipidscan be synthesized and secreted. These designer oils can be optimizedfor specific applications, including but not limited to transportationfuels, lubricants, solvents, and synthetic precursors to complex polymersynthesis.

There was hydrophobic film formation on the surface of the liquidcultures throughout the 5-day growth suggesting extracellular lipidbodies. This film tended to stick to the side walls of the growth tubeas well as forming an easily separable layer at the surface of theculture solution (FIG. 27). These fractions were extracted for bothlipids and proteins.

TLC of different fractions of D. hansenii cultures was demonstrated inFIG. 28. In TLC using a hexane:diethyl ether:acetic acid system, simplelipids such as triglycerides and free fatty acids moved with the mobilephase whereas complex lipids stayed at the origin. TLC showed thepresence of lipids both in the supernatant and in the hydrophobic filmon the surface of the culture. These data indicated that the lipidbodies were in fact secreted out of the cell during cultivation.Although all fractions show the presence of lipids, differences werenoted in the type and the density of the lipids present in eachfraction. To determine the identity ratio of the lipids in eachfraction, further analysis like HLPC is required. Nevertheless, in theimplication is clear to one skilled in the art, namely, that thesecretion process is such that the lipid composition of the secretedfraction is different from the composition of the non-secretedcounterpart. Therefore, the process is specific, and can be engineeredfor designer oil/lipid secretion. FIG. 28. Lipid composition of secretedTAGs is different from bulk cellular lipid. TLC profiles of lipid fromsecreted and non-secreted fractions demonstrate differential speciespresent in each fraction. Six parallel cultures were process. D.hansenii cultures were grown to high density (OD600>>1.5). The cultureswere then diluted in low nitrogen medium N (OD600 0.5) and grown for 5-7days. Next, cell pellets and supernatant removed by pipetting out, afilm layer on the tube walls remained. The tube walls were washed withfresh medium A 3-5 times. The pellet was separated from supernatant bycentrifugation. Each fraction (pellet, supernatant, and film on the tubewalls) was extracted for lipids as described in the figures. The samefractions were extracted for proteins from similarly grown cultures.Protein bands were observed in tube wall films and in the pellet but notin the supernatant. These data therefore indicated a specific (i.e.,non-lytic) process for lipid secretion. 1. TAG Markers (10-20 ng); 2.CHCl₃-MeOH soluble Part of the film on the tube walls; 3. CHCl₃-MeOHsoluble Part of the supernatant; 4. CHCl₃-MeOH soluble part of the tubewalls after it is washed with protein extraction buffer; 5. CHCl₃-MeOHsoluble part of the cell pellet; 6. CHCl₃ soluble part of the after itis washed with CHCl₃-MeOH.

In C. neoformans, the exocytosis of capsular polysaccharides and othermacromolecules has been described. In S. cerevisae, extracellularsecretion of free fatty acids has also been described. In animals,cytosolic neutral lipid droplets consist of a core of TAG that issurrounded by a surface monolayer of phospholipids and proteins. Proteinbinding to lipid bodies during yeast development is discussed and theimportance of lipid bodies in biosynthesis, mobilization and cellulartrafficking has been documented. Thus, in D. hansenii, where lipidsbodies are secreted out of the cell, it is important to understand whichproteins are associated with the lipid bodies. For this purpose proteinextraction was performed to the same three culture fractions describedfor lipid extraction. Cell, supernatant and lipid film fractions of the5-day culture were extracted (50 mM Tris-HCl, 2.0 mM DTT, 100 mM NaCl,14 mM Beta-mercaptoethanol) and extracted proteins were separated using12.5% SDS PAGE. The gels showed the presence of proteins in filmfraction and but not in the supernatant fraction. The cellular fraction,which was used as a positive control, also showed the presence of theprotein on the gel as expected. Therefore, the lipid bodies and proteinsare secreted together. Importantly, the protein fraction is specific,indicating a selective process regulating the lipid body secretionevent.

It should be immediately apparent to one skilled in the art that theabove example provides for a system in which the cell that secretes theoil also produces the oil. Thus, in an important embodiment of thepresent invention, the oil and/or lipid body secretion is achieved by anoil-producing cell. This oil-producing cell can, in one aspect of theinvention, be an oil producing microbe, including but not limited to, D.hansenii.

One skilled in the art will recognize that nitrogen starvation promotesthe differential expression and/or activation of autophagy associatedgenes and gene products [64-69], including but not limited to ATG1,ATG2, ATG3, ATG4, ATG5, ATG6, ATG7, ATG8, ATG9, ATG10, ATG11, ATG12,ATG13, ATG14, ATG15, ATG16, ATG17, ATG18, ATG19, ATG20, ATG21, ATG22,ATG23, ATG24, ATG25, ATG26, ATG27, ATG28, ATG29, ATG30, and/or ATG31.Therefore, in an important embodiment of the present invention, theactivation and/or modulation of these genes (and/or gene products) isused to modulate the amount and/or specificity of lipid or oil bodysecretion.

One skilled in the art will recognize that nitrogen starvation promotesthe differential expression and/or inactivation of cellular PI-3 kinaseactivities. Therefore, in an important embodiment of the presentinvention, the activation and/or modulation of these genes (and/or geneproducts) is used to modulate the amount and/or specificity of lipid oroil body secretion.

In one embodiment of the invention, the modulation of autophagyassociated gene expression is achieved by using standard moleculargenetic approaches to overexpress and/or knockout one or more of thesegenes. RNAi mediated approaches can also be employed to achieveknockdown of target autophagy associated genes.

In one embodiment of the present invention, oil and/or lipid bodysynthesis is achieved by growing an oil producing cell on amonosaccharide, disaccharide, and/or complex carbon source, includingbut not limited to a complex carbon source that contains pentose and/orhexose sugars, and/or cellulose and/or cellulose derived products.

For example, D. hansenii is able to grow on assorted carbon sourcesincluding glucose, glycerol and cellobiose. The cell masses and lipidcontents D. hansenii accumulated using these substrates as the purecarbon sources were quantified over a time course of growth (FIG. 30).Intracellular lipids were extracted directly from dry cells in anAccelerated Solvent Extractor (ASE) using dichloromethane as the solventand measured gravimetrically. Extracellular triacylglycerides (TAG) werequantified using an enzymatic assay (FIG. 29) involving the followingreactions catalyzed by lipase, glycerol kinase, glycerol phosphateoxidase, and peroxidase, respectively:

1. triacylglycerol+H₂O→>glycerol+free fatty acids

2. glycerol+ATP→>glycrol-3-phosphate+ADP

3. glycerol-3-phosphate+O₂→>dihydroxyacetone phosphate+2H₂O₂

4. H₂O₂+4-aminoantipyrine+3,5-dichloro-2-hydroxybenzenesulfonate→>quinoneimine dye+2H₂O

Clearly, the extracellular TAG accounted for majority (over 90%) of thelipids produced by D. hansenii grown in media with different carbonsources (FIG. 30). FIG. 29. An enzymatic assay to measure extracellularTAG species provides linear information over 2 logs of TAGconcentrations. FIG. 30. An enzymatic TAG assay reveals that D. hanseniisecretes TAG into the extracellular medium over a time course of growthin various carbon sources. The amount of TAG synthesized as a functionof total cell weight (biomass) was determined (upper left). The amountof intracellular lipid, total lipid, and extracellular TAG were alsomeasured (upper right, lower left, lower right, respectively).

In one embodiment, the present invention is a cell that produces andsecretes TAG into the extracellular medium. In another embodiment of theinvention, oil/lipid body secretion is induced to occur innon-oleaginous organisms, including non-oleaginous yeasts (e.g., S.cerevisiae). For example, to explore the possibility of using agenetically more tractable system to study the mechanism of lipid bodysecretion that likely caused by nitrogen starvation-induced autophagy,we tested whether S. cerevisiae secrets TAGs under nitrogen starvationconditions when pre-loaded with lipids (FIG. 31). While S. cerevisiaecells remained in nitrogen rich conditions and cells without oleic acidpre-loading did not secret TAGs, cells loaded with oleic acid producedincreasing amount of TAGs extracellularly over a time course of 72 hrafter transferred to nitrogen starvation medium (FIG. 31), indicatingthat lipid body secretion may be a general autophagy-related processinduced by nitrogen starvation. FIG. 31. S. cerevisiae cells were grownin synthetic medium (YSC), loaded with oleic acid (OA), switched to lownitrogen (LN) medium, and then washed with PBS. Extracellular TAG werequantified at different time points after the wash. No glycerol weredetected in the extracellular lipid extract before the addition oflipase. These data indicate that oil secretion is evolutionarilyconserved, and can be induced in non-oleaginous, genetically-tractableorganisms. Importantly, because S. cerevisiae is a model for a widevariety of plant and animal secretion, these data indicate that oilsecretion can be induced in both plants and animal cells.

As will be apparent to one skilled in the arts, the invention has broadimplications beyond oleaginous microbes, and can be readily extended—byone skilled in the arts, to other kinds organisms, including but notlimited to green algae.

The present invention includes systems and methods for the conversion ofshort-chain carbohydrates from biofuel formation and cellulosic biomassinto high-energy fuels. The present invention may be used with one ormore known methods for final recovery of hydrocarbons and other lipids.The recovery of long chain fatty acids and hydrocarbons may include ofone or several steps. For maximum recovery of fatty acids andhydrocarbons, water content of yeast cells may be reduced to 10-20% w/wby a suitable method. Suitable methods include oven drying, spraydraying, drum drying, pneumatic flush drying and similar method used infood, feed and chemical industries. Dried cell biomass can then beground/homogenized/sheared in the presence of organic solvent or amixture of organic solvents. Organic solvents of choice may includehexane, mixture of hexane and ethanol, chloroform and methanol. Organicsolvent (s) are separated from the lipophilic compounds (fatty acids andhydrocarbons) by evaporation to yield a solvent-free mixture of fattyacids and hydrocarbons that are further processed into biodiesel,gasoline or jet fuel.

Culture media and cultivation conditions. For liquid culture, singlecolony of D. hansenii or S. cerevisiae were pre-cultured in 2 mL YPD orother desired media (see below) and incubated at 30° C. for 24 hr. Cellswere counted using a hemacytometer and spun down at 3000 rpm for 15minutes. Cells at a concentration of 1×10⁶/mL were used to inoculate thedesired media with 1% of the total volume. Medium A with limitednitrogen source (glucose 30 g/L, yeast extract 1.5 g/L, NH₄Cl 0.1 g/L,KH₂PO₄ 7.0 g/L, Na₂HPO₄1.983 g/L, MgSO₄.7H₂O 1.5 g/L, FeCl₃.6H₂O 0.08g/L, ZnSO₄.7H₂O 0.01 g/L, CaCl₂.2H₂O 0.1 g/L, MnSO₄.H₂O 0.07 mg/L,CuSO₄.5H₂O 0.1 mg/L, Co(NO₃)₂.6H₂O 0.1 mg/L, pH 5.5; see Kimura et al.,2004) was used to support the growth of D. hansenii and induce cellularlipid accumulation. Medium A with sufficient nitrogen supply (NH₄Cl 5g/L) was used to support growth without the induction of lipidaccumulation. For wortmannin treatment experiment, 100 nM wortmannin(Sigma) were amended in the liquid media at 24 hr post inoculation.

Electron microscopy of D. hansenii. D. hansenii cells were grown in 150mL Medium A containing glucose (30 g/L) as the pure carbon source withor without the presence of 100 nM wortmannin. At 48, 120 and 192 hr postinoculation, 50 mL of the culture were removed and centrifuged at 4000rpm for 10 min. Cell pellet were fixed following the procedure describedpreviously (Wright, 2000) and transmission electron microscopy wasperformed. Cell cultures were grown in triplicate.

Fluorescent microscopy. For Nile red stained cells or cultures,microscopic photographs were taken with an Olympus BX51 microscope(Olympus America, New York, USA) equipped with an Olympus DP70 camerausing a 530-550 nm excitation filter, a 570 nm diachronic mirror and a590 nm emission filter with a 60× objective lens. For microscopicquantification of secreted lipid bodies, 50 μL of the cell suspension inmedia A containing 0.2% agarose and Nile red, with or without theaddition of 100 nM wortmannin, were inoculated in triplicate inmicroscopic frames that allow the agarose-based matrix to be sealedbetween two pieces of cover glasses. Slides were incubated in 90%moisture at 30° C. At 0, 48, 72, 96, 120, 144 hr post inoculation, thenumber of the cells and extracellular lipid bodies (stained with Nilered) were quantified. In parallel, the cells were stained with FUN1(Invitrogen) for viability determination.

Extracellular triacylglyceride extraction and quantification. Cellculture supernatant was collected at different time points andextracellular TAGs were extracted from 400 μL of supernatant each sampleand quantified as described (Schwartz and Wolins, 2007). Experimentswere performed in triplicate.

Intracellular lipid extraction and quantification. D. hansenii cellswere collected from 50 mL cultures at various time points andlyophilized. After dry cell weight determination, intracellular totallipids were extracted from the cells using an Accelerated SolventExtractor (ASE) in dichloromethane with the 2 cycles of the followingprogram at 1500 psi and 100° C.: heat for 5 min, static for 5 min, flushwith 30% solvent, purge for 1 min. The solvent containing lipids werecollected, dried and lipid contents were measured gravimetrically. Allexperiments were performed in triplicate.

Nitrogen starvation induced lipid secretion in S. cerevisiae. S.cerevisiae cells were grown in synthetic medium (YSC: 6.7 g/L yeastnitrogen base, 20 g glucose, and amino acids), loaded with oleic acid(OA), switched to low nitrogen synthetic medium (1.7 g/L yeast nitrogenbase without ammonium sulfate, 20 g glucose and amino acids), and thenwashed with phosphate buffer saline (PBS). Extracellular TAGs werequantified at different time points after the wash. All experiments wereperformed in triplicate.

Lipid and protein extraction from different fractions. Experiments wereperformed with 6 parallel cultures. Briefly, twelve 3.0 mL low-nitrogenmedium A cultures were inoculated with D. hansenii from a previouslygrown D. hansenii YPD plate. They were grown for 5 days at 28° C., 250rpm, and then centrifuged at 2500 g for 5 min. Six of the twelvecultures were transferred into 1.5 mL Eppendorf tubes by pipetting outthe clear supernatant together with cell pellet. A lipid film remainedon the side wall of the falcon tube (which was used for extraction, seebelow). Care was taken not to contaminate the film on the sides of thetube while transferring the supernatant and the pelleted cells out. Thefalcon tubes were washed with 3×500 μL fresh medium A without disturbingthe lipid film on the side wall of the tube. The wash solution was thendiscarded. The lipid film was extracted from the side wall, as well asfrom the pelleted cells and the supernatant for lipids. For the lipidfilm, 200 μL CHCl₃: MeOH (2:1, v/v) were added to the tube, vortex well,and centrifuged to precipitate any debris at 4000 rpm for 10 min.Transfer the supernatant into a new tube, use empty tubes for furtherextraction, evaporate the solvent, disperse the remaining content in 10μL CHCl₃ and ran 2.0 μL on TLC plate. Alternatively, we took the tubesafter CHCl₃:MeOH treatment (still there was some film on the sidewalls), added 100 μL CHCl₃, vortexed well, transferred it to a freshtube, evaporated the CHCl₃, and dispersed the tube contents in 10 μLCHCl₃, and run 2.0 μL on TLC plate. For the supernatant and cellfractions, we took the tube containing supernatant cell separated fromthe lipid film, centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 15 min, separated thesupernatant into a new tube, and used this in downstream extractions(See below). Alternatively, we added 500 μL CHCl₃: MeOH (2:1, v/v) tothe pellet, vortexed well, centrifuged to separate any cell debris,transferred the supernatant into a new tube, evaporated the supernatantand dispersed the tube contents in 10 μA, CHCl₃, and ran 2.0 μA, on TLCplate (See image D). Alternatively, 500 μA, were pipetted of 3.0 mLsupernatant separated from the cell pellet, added 500 μL CHCl₃:MeOH(2:1, v/v), spun the sample as above, separated the bottom layer into anew tube, evaporated and dispersed the tube contents in 10 μL CHCl₃, andran 2.0 μL on TLC plate (Sample Set 3, FIG. 28). The remaining 6 tubeswere centrifuged, and pipetted clear supernatant together with cellpellet to new tubes. A lipid film remained on the side wall of thefalcon tube as described above. We were careful not to contaminate thefilm on the sides of the tube while transferring the supernatant and thepelleted cells to a new tube. A protein extraction buffer was added,vortexed well, and centrifuged again. The supernatant were separated andadded 200 μL CHCl₃: MeOH (2:1, v/v), centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 15 min,separated the bottom layer of the liquid part into a new tube. Finally,we evaporated and dispersed the tube contents in 10 μL, CHCl₃, and run2.0 μL, on TLC plate. The results of these studies are shown in FIG. 28.

Example 3 D. hansenii growth study in PM Plates

Phonemics, an emergent scientific discipline within systems biology, isthe study of global phenotypes resulting from interactions between agenome and its environment. The OmniLog Phenotype Microarray (PM)(Biolog, Hayward, Calif.) provides phonemic data by simultaneouslyassaying multiple cellular responses to a number of physiochemicalstimuli and as a function of time. Exemplary chemical stimuli includechemical sensitivity or the ability to catabolize various carbon ornitrogen compounds. This assays indirectly measures the generation (orsubsequent utilization) of cellular reducing power (e.g., NADH) bydirectly measuring the pixel intensity of one or more redox-responsivecolorimetric dyes, which are converted from colorless to colored (e.g.,purple) when reduced. Colorimetric pixel density is converted toarbitrary units (AU), such higher AU signal values are indicative ofgreater relative cellular respiration or activity.

PM was previously employed to characterize S. cerevisiae peptidecatabolism. Herein, we use PM as a tool to determine responsiveness ofD. hansenii to various physiochemical stimuli that are known to inhibitother fermentation inhibitors (e.g., pH, salts) and thus to defineconditions under which D. hansenii could optimally produce and/or secretoil. In this current example, D. hansenii was assayed using fourdifferent 96-well PM panels: PM1 and PM2 (carbon source utilizationand/or sensitivity); PM9 (osmolytes); and PM10 (pH).

In one embodiment of the present invention, optimal conditions underwhich oil synthesis, accumulation and secretion are defined. Forexample, to optimize the growth conditions at which D. hansenii secretslipid bodies, we first investigated carbon utilization profiles andosmo- and pH-tolerance of D. hansenii using the Phenotype Microarray(PM) (FIG. 32). [FIG. 32. Phenotype Microarray (PM) strategy. Phenotypemicroarrays were used to define conditions under which D. hanseniioptimally secreted oil. The strategy for PM analysis is depicted.]

In addition to the above tested carbon sources, D. hansenii was able toefficiently utilize a variety of other pure carbon sources includingvarious pentoses, hexoses, disaccharides and trisaccharides, (FIG.33-38), many of which are components of plant cell wall materials. D.hansenii tolerated unfavorable growth conditions that are unsuitable formany microbial species. For examples, D. hansenii tolerated high levelsof salt solutions (up to 6.5% NaCl, 6% KCl, 5% Na₂SO₄) (FIG. 39-41)without severe compromise in growth. D. hansenii also had a wider rangeof pH tolerance (FIG. 42-45). [FIGS. 33 and 34. Growth of D. hansenii inthe presence of various carbon sources (as measured using the OMNILOGPM). FIG. 35. PM1_(—)1 after 5 days of incubation at 30° C. FIG. 36.PM2_(—)2, after 6.5 days of incubation at 30° C. FIG. 37. Time course ofD. hansenii growth in the presence of various carbon sources (asmeasured using the OMNILOG PM). FIG. 38. Growth of D. hansenii inglycerol alone or with NaCl (as measured using the OMNILOG PM). FIG. 39.Growth of D. hansenii in assorted osmolytes (as measured using theOMNILOG PM). FIG. 40. Growth of D. hansenii in osmolytes, cont'd. (asmeasured using the OMNILOG PM). FIG. 41. Growth of D. hansenii inpotassium chloride (as measured using the OMNILOG PM). FIG. 42. Growthof D. hansenii at various pH values (as measured using the OMNILOG PM).FIGS. 43 and 44. Growth of D. hansenii in acid and base (as measuredusing the OMNILOG PM). FIG. 45. Growth of D. hansenii at various pHvalues (as measured using the OMNILOG PM).

Media and reagents. Defined medium A for D. hansenii (Kimura et al.,2004) was employed. All nutrient supplements including uracil and aminoacids were obtained from Sigma. The Biolog PM media contained 100 mMglucose, 1 mM disodium pyrophosphate, 2 mM sodium sulfate, 5 mML-glutamic acid monosodium, and a proprietary tetrazolium dye mix D andIFY-0 medium. The additive sugar and salt were obtained from Sigma.

BioLog Protocol. The protocol provided by BioLog has been used on S.cerevisiae and other fungi. To apply on D. hansenii, determining themost efficient carbon substrate to optimize the protocol became thefirst step. According to Kimura et al., 2004, glucose or glycerol isusually used as carbon sources, and pH5.5 is the appropriate pH for D.hansenii. Since glycerol cannot be concentrated as 32× as needed,succinate that was broadly applied as carbon sources in BioLog systemwas used instead. The gradient concentration of glucose (50-150 mM) andsuccinate (10-40 mM) were tested. The inoculants lacking carbon sourceswere served as control.

PM assays. Inoculums for PM panels were prepared according to themanufacturer's protocols with modifications; Procedures for S.cerevisiae and other Fungi version 8 Feb. 2006 (Biolog) was used toprepare inoculums for PM01, PM02, and PM09, while version 29 Apr. 2008(Biolog) was used for PM10. In brief, D. hansenii were streaked ontodefined Medium A (Table 6) and cultivated at 30° C. for 48 hours. Cellswere redistributed onto fresh agar using a sterile swab and incubatedfor an additional 4 hours at 30° C. to ensure active growth and avoidlate-growth clumping (Oliver R Homann, Houjian Cai, 2005). (Kimura etal., 2004)

Cells were then transferred into the appropriate PM inoculation fluid(Table 7) and re-suspended to 62% transmittance (approximately 200 cellsper 100 μL assay). PM1 and PM2 measure carbon source utilization and/orsensitivity; as such, the inoculation fluid lacks a defined carbonsource (e.g., glycerol or glucose). In contrast, the inoculating fluidsfor PM9 (osmolytes) and PM10 (pH) required the inclusion of a carbonsource (Table 7); in this case glucose was supplemented to 100 mM.

D. hansenii-containing inoculation fluid was inoculated into PM panelsand incubated at 30° C. for 6.5 days. Color intensity for each well wasmeasured every 15 minutes. Exemplary time course (kinetic) results(means) from representative PM assays are plotted.

In order to simplify the comparison of individual assay conditions, thefull time-course kinetic plots were converted into a single unitlessnumerical value, which is weighted to more greatly value latter timepoints (e.g., endpoints), as described by Homann et al. (2005). Signalvalue=[(average signal+maximum signal)/2−average signal over first 2 h];Represent the full time course by a single number; Weight the valuetowards latter time points; Subtract the “baseline” signal level foreach well (Oliver R Homann, 2005) and Replicate PM assay runs wereconducted, and the average of the signal values was used.

The formulation of final ingredients in PM Inoculating Fluids after theaddition of cell suspension: SC medium is composed of 6.7 g of YNBwithout amino acid and 2 g of Synthetic Complete Supplement Mixture (SCmixture) per liter. Both YNB and SC bought from Sunrise Science.

TABLE 5 Formulation of phenotype microarray (PM) inoculation fluids forPM1, PM2, PM 9, and PM10. Note that only PM10 requires the addition ofSC medium (Table 6) (Sunrise Science). PM5,9 PM10+ (mM) Ingredient (mM)1× IFY-0 — — SC Medium 1× 1× Dye mix D — — Dye mix E 1× 100 D-glucose100 5 L-glutamic acid monosodium — 1 potassium phosphate [pH 6.0] — 2sodium sulfate — 0.05 adenine HCl^(a) 0.05 0.01 L-histidine HClmonohydrate^(a) 0.01 0.1 L-leucine^(a) 0.1 0.05 L-lysine HCl^(a) 0.050.025 L-methionine^(a) 0.025 0.025 L-tryptophan^(a) 0.025 0.03uracil^(a) 0.03

TABLE 6 The formulation of SC Medium (Sunrise Science). Component in SCMixture mg/L Adenine 21 L-Alanine 85.6 L-Arginine 85.6 L-Asparagine 85.6L-Cysteine 85.6 Glutamine 85.6 L-Glutamic Acid 85.6 Glycine 85.6L-Histidine 85.6 Myo-Inositol 85.6 L-Isoleucine 85.6 L-Leucine 173.4Para-AminoBenzoic Acid (PABA) 8.6 L-Methionine 85.6 L-Lysine 85.6L-Phenylalenine 85.6 L-Proline 85.6 L-Serine 85.6 L-Threonine 85.6L-Tyrptophan 85.6 L-Tyrosine 85.6 Uracil 85.6 L-Valine 85.6

It is contemplated that any embodiment discussed in this specificationcan be implemented with respect to any method, kit, reagent, orcomposition of the invention, and vice versa. Furthermore, compositionsof the invention can be used to achieve methods of the invention.

It will be understood that particular embodiments described herein areshown by way of illustration and not as limitations of the invention.The principal features of this invention can be employed in variousembodiments without departing from the scope of the invention. Thoseskilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no morethan routine experimentation, numerous equivalents to the specificprocedures described herein. Such equivalents are considered to bewithin the scope of this invention and are covered by the claims.

All publications and patent applications mentioned in the specificationare indicative of the level of skill of those skilled in the art towhich this invention pertains. All publications and patent applicationsare herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if eachindividual publication or patent application was specifically andindividually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

The use of the word “a” or “an” when used in conjunction with the term“comprising” in the claims and/or the specification may mean “one,” butit is also consistent with the meaning of “one or more,” “at least one,”and “one or more than one.” The use of the term “or” in the claims isused to mean “and/or” unless explicitly indicated to refer toalternatives only or the alternatives are mutually exclusive, althoughthe disclosure supports a definition that refers to only alternativesand “and/or.” Throughout this application, the term “about” is used toindicate that a value includes the inherent variation of error for thedevice, the method being employed to determine the value, or thevariation that exists among the study subjects.

As used in this specification and claim(s), the words “comprising” (andany form of comprising, such as “comprise” and “comprises”), “having”(and any form of having, such as “have” and “has”), “including” (and anyform of including, such as “includes” and “include”) or “containing”(and any form of containing, such as “contains” and “contain”) areinclusive or open-ended and do not exclude additional, unrequitedelements or method steps.

The term “or combinations thereof” as used herein refers to allpermutations and combinations of the listed items preceding the term.For example, “A, B, C, or combinations thereof” is intended to includeat least one of: A, B, C, AB, AC, BC, or ABC, and if order is importantin a particular context, also BA, CA, CB, CBA, BCA, ACB, BAC, or CAB.Continuing with this example, expressly included are combinations thatcontain repeats of one or more item or term, such as BB, AAA, MB, BBC,AAABCCCC, CBBAAA, CABABB, and so forth. The skilled artisan willunderstand that typically there is no limit on the number of items orterms in any combination, unless otherwise apparent from the context.

All of the compositions and/or methods disclosed and claimed herein canbe made and executed without undue experimentation in light of thepresent disclosure. While the compositions and methods of this inventionhave been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will beapparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied tothe compositions and/or methods and in the steps or in the sequence ofsteps of the method described herein without departing from the concept,spirit and scope of the invention. All such similar substitutes andmodifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to bewithin the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by theappended claims.

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1. A method of making a biofuel comprising: providing anitrogen-limiting, minimal growth media comprising glycerol, sugarsgenerated from cellulosic biomass or both, under conditions in which anoleaginous microbe converts the growth media into at least one oftriacylglycerol, neutral lipids, fatty acids, long-chain fatty acids,and hydrocarbons.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the oils aresecreted by the microbe.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the mediacomprises 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, or 2.0 M salt.
 4. The method of claim 1,wherein the media comprises at least one of a cellulose, a cellulosicsubstrate, cellobiose, carboxymethylcellulose, hemicellulose, a sweetsorghum extract, a sugar cane extract, a sugar cane baggasse, orcellulosic substrates derived therefrom.
 5. The method of claim 1,wherein the neutral lipid is at least one of a triacylglycerol (TAG)comprising saturated esterified fatty acids; a TAG comprisingunsaturated esterified fatty acids; a TAG comprising oleic acid; or aTAG comprising oleic acid at the Sn-1, Sn-2 or Sn-3 position.
 6. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the hydrocarbons comprise C16, C18, C20, C22,C24, C26, C28, C30, and/or C40 and the hydrocarbons are furtherprocessed into a lubricant, biodiesel, gasoline, jet fuel, or a liquidtransportation fuel.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the hydrocarbonscontain C15, C17, C19, C21, C23, C25, C27, C29, and/or C31.
 8. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the mixture of hydrocarbons is optimized fora specific application, selected from a precursor for liquidtransportation fuel biosynthesis, a precursor for lubricant biosynthesisor derivatives thereof.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the microbesare grown for 48, 72, 96, or 120 hours at a temperature of 25° C., 30°C., or 37° C. and at a pH of 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0 or 7.5.
 10. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the media comprises 0.1% nitrogen.
 11. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the microbes secrete the triacylglycerol,neutral lipids, fatty acids, long-chain fatty acids, and hydrocarbonswithout cell death.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the microbes areinduced to overexpress one or more autophagy-associated genes.
 13. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the microbes are induced to overexpress oneor more autophagy-associated genes selected from ATG1, ATG2, ATG3, ATG4,ATG5, ATG6, ATG7, ATG8, ATG9, ATG10, ATG11, ATG12, ATG13, ATG14, ATG15,ATG16, ATG17, ATG18, ATG19, ATG20, ATG21, ATG22, ATG23, ATG24, ATG25,ATG26, ATG27, ATG28, ATG29, ATG30, ATG31.
 14. The method of claim 1,wherein the microbes are genetically modified to overexpress one or moreautophagy-associated S. cerevisiae genes selected from ATG1, ATG2, ATG3,ATG4, ATG5, ATG6, ATG7, ATG8, ATG9, ATG10, ATG11, ATG12, ATG13, ATG14,ATG15, ATG16, ATG17, ATG18, ATG19, ATG20, ATG21, ATG22, ATG23, ATG24,ATG25, ATG26, ATG27, ATG28, ATG29, ATG30, ATG31.
 15. The method of claim1, wherein the microbes are genetically modified to overexpress one ormore autophagy-associated genes that is orthologous or paralogous to agene selected from ATG1, ATG2, ATG3, ATG4, ATG5, ATG6, ATG7, ATG8, ATG9,ATG10, ATG11, ATG12, ATG13, ATG14, ATG15, ATG16, ATG17, ATG18, ATG19,ATG20, ATG21, ATG22, ATG23, ATG24, ATG25, ATG26, ATG27, ATG28, ATG29,ATG30, ATG31.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the microbes aregenetically modified to overexpress one or more autophagy-associatedgenes integrated into the genome or on an autonomously replicatingplasmid.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the microbes are selectedfrom Debaryomyces sp., Saccharomyces sp., Rhodococcus sp., Nocardia sp.,Mycobacterium sp., Rhodosporidium sp., Cryptococcus sp., Rhodotorulasp., Yarrowia lipolytica or Lipomyces sp. or combinations of thesemicrobes in a single reaction vessel.
 18. A method of producing abiofuel comprising: growing an oleaginous microbe in anitrogen-limiting, minimal media to late log phase and/or stationaryphase, whereby the oleaginous microbe secretes an oil.
 19. The method ofclaim 18, wherein the media comprises 0.1% nitrogen.
 20. The method ofclaim 18, wherein the microbes are grown for 48, 72, 96, or 120 hours ata temperature of 25° C., 30° C., or 37° C. and at a pH of 5.0, 5.5, 6.0,6.5, 7.0 or 7.5.
 21. The method of claim 18, wherein the media comprises0.5, 1.0, 1.5, or 2.0M salt.
 22. The method of claim 18, wherein themedia comprises salt that is at least one of NaCl, KCl, or both KCl andNaCl.
 23. The method of claim 18, wherein the microbes are disruptedwith an agent that increases PI-3 kinase activity.
 24. The method ofclaim 18, wherein the microbes are disrupted by mechanical or chemicaltreatment to release intracellular oils.
 25. The method of claim 18,wherein the microbes have been genetically modified to overexpress PI-3kinase.
 26. The method of claim 18, wherein the microbes have beengenetically modified to comprise a PI-3 kinase overexpression cassetteinto the cell, wherein the PI3-kinase overexpression cassette isintegrated into the genome or the PI-3 kinase is in an overexpressioncassette on an autonomously replicating plasmid.
 27. An oleaginousmicrobe comprising that has been engineered to secrete enhanced amountsof oil by upregulating PI-3 kinase activity.
 28. The microbe of claim27, wherein the microbes have been genetically modified to overexpressPI-3 kinase.
 29. The microbe of claim 27, wherein the microbes have beengenetically modified to comprise a PI-3 kinase overexpression cassetteinto the cell, wherein the PI3-kinase overexpression cassette isintegrated into the genome or the PI-3 kinase is in an overexpressioncassette on an autonomously replicating plasmid.
 30. The microbe ofclaim 27, wherein the microbes are selected from wherein the organismused for biofuel formation are selected from Debaryomyces sp.,Saccharomyces sp. Rhodococcus sp., Nocardia sp., Mycobacterium sp.,Rhodosporidium sp., Cryptococcus sp., Rhodotorula sp., and Lipomyces sp.or combinations of these organisms in a single reaction vessel.
 31. Anoleaginous microbe comprising that has been engineered to secreteenhanced amounts of oil by modulating the expression ofautophagy-associated genes.
 32. The microbe of claim 31, wherein themicrobes are induced to modify the expression of one or moreautophagy-associated S. cerevisiae genes selected from ATG1, ATG2, ATG3,ATG4, ATG5, ATG6, ATG7, ATG8, ATG9, ATG10, ATG11, ATG12, ATG13, ATG14,ATG15, ATG16, ATG17, ATG18, ATG19, ATG20, ATG21, ATG22, ATG23, ATG24,ATG25, ATG26, ATG27, ATG28, ATG29, ATG30, ATG31.
 33. The microbe ofclaim 31, wherein the microbes are induced to modify the expression ofone or more autophagy-associated genes that are orthologous to the S.cerevisiae genes selected from ATG1, ATG2, ATG3, ATG4, ATG5, ATG6, ATG7,ATG8, ATG9, ATG10, ATG11, ATG12, ATG13, ATG14, ATG15, ATG16, ATG17,ATG18, ATG19, ATG20, ATG21, ATG22, ATG23, ATG24, ATG25, ATG26, ATG27,ATG28, ATG29, ATG30, ATG31.
 34. The microbe of claim 31, wherein themicrobes are genetically modified to vary the expression of one or moreautophagy-associated genes selected from ATG1, ATG2, ATG3, ATG4, ATG5,ATG6, ATG7, ATG8, ATG9, ATG10, ATG11, ATG12, ATG13, ATG14, ATG15, ATG16,ATG17, ATG18, ATG19, ATG20, ATG21, ATG22, ATG23, ATG24, ATG25, ATG26,ATG27, ATG28, ATG29, ATG30, ATG31.
 35. The microbe of claim 31, whereinthe microbes are genetically modified to vary the expression of one ormore autophagy-associated genes by integrated the genes into the genome,by expression of the genes on an autonomously replicating plasmid or bymodifying the expression of the genes post-translationally.
 36. Themicrobe of claim 31, wherein the microbes are engineered tounder-express the autophagy-associated genes to decrease oil secretion.37. The microbe of claim 31, wherein the microbes are engineered toover-express the autophagy-associated genes to increase oil secretion.38. The method of claim 31, wherein microbes are further geneticallymodified to overexpress PI-3 kinase.
 39. A method of reducing bioreactorwaste comprising: mixing a reaction waste product comprising glycerolwith a growth media and an inoculum of Debaryomyces hansenii underconditions in which Debaryomyces hansenii converts the glycerol intolong-chain fatty acids and hydrocarbons; and recovering the long-chainfatty acids and hydrocarbons produced thereby.
 40. A method of reducingbioreactor waste comprising generating a biofuel by fermentation;collecting a glycerol waste stream from the fermentation; mixing abiofuel reactor waste product comprising glycerol with a growth mediaand an inoculum of Debaryomyces hansenii under conditions in whichDebaryomyces hansenii converts the glycerol into long-chain fatty acidsand hydrocarbons; and recovering the long-chain fatty acids andhydrocarbons produced thereby.
 41. A biofuel reactor comprising: avessel comprising an internal volume capable of holding a growth medium;a microbe capable of converting glycerol into a long-chain fatty acidsand hydrocarbons in the growth medium; and a source of glycerol.